Humans and Antarctica

Humans thought about the existence of a southern continent long before distance sea voyages were possible. The ancient Greeks believed in a "Terra Australis Incognita", or a southern continent to balance out the northern half of the world. Because their world was based on a sphere, Greek symmetry dictated that there had to be something in opposition to the known world.

Actual evidence of the continent didn't come until the 18th century. (It is argued that some reached the continent as early as the 7th century, but these rumors remain unproven). First the Iles Kerguelen in the Southern Indian Ocean were discovered in 1772 by Frenchman Yves Joseph de Kerguelen-Tremarec. A year later, the crews of the Resolution and Adventure under the command of Captain James Cook crossed the Arctic circle for the first time, and eventually two more times as they circumnavigated the continent.

Antarctica was formally sited in 1820 by American Nathaniel Palmer, who reportedly came within three miles of the coastline. This discovery, though, has always been in question. Other candidates include earlier American seal hunters, the British explorers William Smith or Edward Bransfield, or the Russian explorer Fabian von Bellingshausen.

First landing was made in 1895 by Carstens Egeberg Borchgrevink and his crew of the ship Antarctic, at Cape Adare. Four years later, Borchgrevink comes back with the Southern Cross Expedition, and he and others become the first men to spend a winter on the continent. Earlier, in 1898, a Belgic expedition had become trapped in the pack ice and floated trapped for a year, and were essentially the first to spend a winter below the Arctic circle.

Then began the attempts to reach the South Pole. The first to try were Robert Scott, Edward Wilson, and Ernest Shackleton (left), who left from McMurdo Sound in 1902 and were forced to turn around at 82 degrees south. In 1908, Shackleton tried again and reached 150km from the pole, but achieved the southern magnetic pole and climbed Mt. Erebus. In 1910, different expeditions led by Roald Amundsen and Robert Scott both leave for the pole. After a 57 day journey on a new route, Amundsen makes it to the South pole, and leaves a Norwegian flag and a message for Captain Scott. When Scott and his team reach the pole and discover the flag, they become depressed and die on the return journey.

From then on, the history of Antarctica is covered with other expeditions to explore the continent. Shackleton tries to cross the continent in 1915, but when his ship Endurance (left) is caught in the ice for nine months and crushed, he and his crew are forced to spend five more months on the ice before reaching Elephants Island. This expedition has become one of the more famous expeditions, because of all of the hardships that the crew endured to come home (all men survived). Following Shackleton, air travel becomes possible, and the continent opens up to aerial exploration and more bases.

Other Interesting and Important Dates

1847: The first crossing of the Antarctic circle by a steamship, the HMS Challenger.

1904: A base is set up on Ross Island by Edmund Scott's British National Expedition. Another base concentrating on whaling is set up by Carl Larsen at South Georgia.

1905: An increase in government interest is created at the International Geographical Congress meeting in London, England, when it is decided to make Antarctica the target of future explorations. Britain, Germany, and Sweden immediately begin to make plans.

1922: Ernest Shackleton dies of a heart attack at age 48 during his final Antarctic quest.

1929: The first flight in an airplane over the South Pole is made by Richard Byrd and his three team members in a Ford monoplane.

1934: Richard Byrd becomes the first person to spend a winter alone in the center of the continent.

1935: The first woman steps on the continent: Caroline Mikkelsen, the wofe of a Norwegian whaling captain.

1947: The largest operation to date, Operation Highjump of the US Navy, puts 4000 men, 13 ships, and 23 aircraft on the continent to map and explore.

1955-59: The first crossing attempt by snow cats, sponsered by the Fuch's Commonwealth Trans-Antarctic Expedition, is started from the Wendell Sea. Sir Edmund Hillary, leader of the support team, makes it to the pole with 91 L of fuel left.

1957: Antarctica becomes the main area of study for scientists from 67 contries with the beginning of the 18 month International Geophysical Year. The number of bases increases from 28 to 40.

1959: The Antarctic Treaty is signed in Washington, DC. (For more on this topic, click on the link at the bottom of this page.)

1962: The first nuclear power plant is installed by the US Navy at McMurdo base. However, because of problems with fire, leaking, and shutdowns, it is decommissioned in 1972. Six years and 101 barrels later, the site is clean enough for use again.

1965: Tourism to the continent begins with annual luxury cruises offered by Lars Eric Lindblad, a New York travel agency owner.

1978: The first baby, Emilio de Palma, is born in Antarctica, in an Argintinian investigation into whether the continent is suitable for family life.

1981: The Transglobe Expedition becomes the second party to cross the continent and the tenth to travel to the pole by land, as they complete a circumnavigation of the world via the poles.

1991: The Madrid Protocol on Environmental Protection is ratified after two years of encouragement from the governments of France and Australia.

1999: A doctor at the South Pole with a breast lump is rescued after spending an Antarctic winter treating herself with medicine and tools left by an airdrop.

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